Decision Evaluation and Implementation Slp Assignment

Decision Evaluation and Implementation Slp - Assignment Example he other hand, I also had this thought of saving this many so that I might use it to buy myself some nice cloths, shopping, expand my business or even go out with friends. These were some of the short-term ideas I had about how to spend the money. It was never clear to me and at some point, I got confused over what exactly I needed to do with my savings. It was also not clear to me whether I wanted to use this money soon for a short-term goal, or in the future, for a long-term goal. I needed to find a decision making tool that could suit my problem to help me with decision making. After studying my choices keenly, I realized that they were they could widely be categorized into two types of choices. In this case, there were those choices for the short-term while others belonged to the long-term choices. I then came to find out that the best decision-making tool that could suit my situation was the use of a decision tree. A decision tree is this type of decision making tool which categorizes decisions into two different types making them be in two choices (Francis & Arsham, 2010). Probability is then applied on the events of each side of the decision to find which decision should be taken up. Similarly, while separating the decisions into two different decision sides, elimination of the unwanted decisions can be done by applying the benefits that the decision can give to you, and comparing it with the benefit that the other decision on the other side of the tree is capable of giving. This decision making tool was found to be most appropriate as it gives two sid es of the situation, hence giving us an easy way of making decisions through taking up the decisions on the most appropriate side. The decision tree is developed by establishing all the possible outcomes in a decision making process. Here, the possible outcomes were equated to the possible uses of money I had. It was then developed as below. The decision tree was developed by listing all the possible all the

Learning English Essay Example for Free

Learning English Essay Life long learning is the concept that it is never too soon or too late for learning. Lifelong learning is attitudinished that one should be open to the new ideas, decisions, skills or behaviours. English is neccessity of life and the same as lifelong learning when you want to live in the real world; English is very important and neccessity in your life. For example, when I was young I could not speak any language and then after I grew up my parents, my teachers; they tried to teach Thai language to me because they knew if I cannot understand Thai language it would be very difficult to live with another people when I grew up where I studied my teacher taught English to our students because he knew English is very important in the world, but I did not know why at that time I did not study hard. Sometime, English was boring; this is the reason why I did not have interest to study it, perhaps I think, I am lazy and it is not good for me. English is important key to success. If you want to do anything in the world such as, to study, to do your business, to make a new friends, to go aboard etc. Especially when you go aboard to study another course. It is teach in English and then when you graduate and want to get a good job, it is very important for you to do anything in your business. You can use it to make new friends from all over the countrys in the world for your business. It has an adventure over than somebody cannot use English. Your business has a good chance for your success. The real world has a lot of business competitors if you cannot use English maybe you get someone who want to do business with you and may decieve you and then your business may fail or bankrupt. Whatever English enlightens us about how to succeed in the real world eventually I want to study English, but according to my chance when I live in India. My disere is simutnious about studying English and to write research proposal an apply to study in some course at the university because i will hope it would be good for me to improve my English and I will finish maybe it has been good. When I have finished. I will get a good job and I can communicate or contact with foriegners who give a good chance and good work for me. Though I will achieve good things or bad experiences but I think, English is meaningful and worthwhile to study. I will want to study all the time, it cannot stop to learn probably if i will study for a long time, it will help me to succeed in anything. I am hopeful it can improve my life although it is very difficult and very complicated for me, but I will want to try and study. It  has worthiness or worthless it depends on you. If you think and do in the right way it is good for you and anybody, but on the other hand it is good for you only and then it can destroy someone.

Mental Health Legislation In Uk Social Work Essay

Mental Health Legislation In Uk Social Work Essay One adult in six in the UK suffers from one or more forms of mental illness at any time. Incidence of mental ailments can as such be considered as prevalent as asthma (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). Mental ailments range from very common conditions like depression to ailments like schizophrenia, which affect less than 1% of the population. Mental ailments cost the nation approximately 77 billion GBP every year in terms of expenses on health and social care (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). Such ailments are not really well understood even today and often frighten people and stigmatise people with such ailments (Sheppard, 2002, p 779 to 797). Individuals with long term mental health issues are likely to face discrimination and social exclusion, phenomena that can lead to unemployment or underemployment, poverty, inadequate housing, social isolation and stigmatisation (Sheppard, 2002, p 779 to 797). Whilst UK society is progressively coming to terms with and accept modern day phenomena like homosexuality and same sex marriages, people continue to be very apprehensive about mental disorders and often associate such conditions with lunacy and the need for isolation and detention of people with severe and long term mental health conditions (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003, p 304 to 309). Legislation and social policy towards mentally ill people has however evolved substantially over the course of the 20th century and more so in the last 25 years. I am placed in a residential unit that houses people that both sexes who are over 16 and have mental health issues. This assignment focuses on mental health law and policy in the UK and the various ways in which Ii am using my knowledge and understanding of these issues to inform my practice. Mental Health Legislation in UK Poor mental health continues to have substantial economic and personal impact in the UK. Stigma and discrimination increase such impacts (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003, p 304 to 309). Social research has consistently found the presence of extremely negative attitudes towards individuals with mental health issues (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003, p 304 to 309). There persists the view that such people represent dangers to their communities, perceptions which are also on occasion reinforced by the media. Such negative attitudes do not occur only in the media and the general public but also among mental health workers and professionals (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003, p 304 to 309). Such elements increase social distancing, cause social exclusion and reduce the probability of such individuals to gain employment or access social and health care services (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003, p 304 to 309). Whilst discriminatory attitudes towards the mentally ill still exists in substantial measure and adversely affect the life chances and social exclusion of such people, it also needs to be recognised that substantial progress has been made over the course of the 20th century and especially in the last 25 years to improve the physical, mental, economic and social conditions of such people (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). Such changes have basically been brought about through changes in legislation and in social policy (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). People with mental illnesses have traditionally been perceived negatively by society, with attitudes towards them varying from being harmless nuisances to violence prone and dangerous individuals (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). Families with members with mental illnesses have often tried to hide such conditions for fear of social stigmatisation and the state, right until the end of the 19th century, was comfortable with locking such people up in lunatic asylums (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The Madhouse Act 1774 led to the creation of a commission with authority to give licences to premises for accommodating lunatics (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). Succeeding legislation gave mental hospitals the authority to detain people with mental ailments (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The Lunacy Act 1890 was repealed with the passing of the Mental Health Act 1959. The Mental Health Act 1959 strengthened the Mental Treatment Act 1930 and allowed most psychiatric admissions to happen on a voluntary basis (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The Act aimed at providing informal treatment for most individuals with mental ailments, even as it created a legal framework for detention of certain people (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The recommendations made in the Percy Report led to decisions on compulsory detention of mentally ill persons changing from judicial to administrative prerogatives (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The 1959 Act however did not clarify whether legal detention orders for people with mental disorders authorised hospitals to treat such people without their consent (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The passing of the Mental Health Act 1983 provided a range of safeguards for people in hospitals. The act also imposed a duty on the district health authorities and social service departments to pr ovide after care services to the people discharged from hospital (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The Mental Health Act 1983 covered the assessment, treatment and the rights of people with mental health conditions and specified that people could be detained only if the strict criteria specified in the act were met (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). The Mental Health Act 2007 aimed to modernise the Mental Health Act 1983 and incorporated changes that widened the definition of mental disorder and gave greater say to patients about who their nearest relatives were (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). The act also decreased the situations where electroconvulsive therapy could be given without permission, gave detained patients rights to independent mental health advocates, gave 16 and 17 year olds rights to agree or refuse admission to hospital without such decisions being superseded by parents and introduced supervised community treatment (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). The amendment of the Mental Health Act was followed by the publication of a code of practice that provides guidance to health care professionals on the interpretation of the law on a regular basis (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). The code of practice has five important additions to guiding principles, which deal with purpose, least restriction, participation, and effectiveness , efficiency and equity (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). The code importantly states that the specific needs of patients need to be recognised and patients should be involved to the greatest possible extent in the planning of their treatment (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). Whilst The Mental Health Act 1983, as amended in 2007, constitutes the most important mental health legislation in the country, the rights of people with mental health ailments is also governed by other acts like The Mental Capacity Act 2005, The Disability Discrimination Act 1995, The Health and Social Care Act 2008, The Care Standards Act 2007, The Mental Health (Patients in the Community) Act 1995, The Carers (Recognition and Services) Act 1996 and The Community Care (Direct Payment) Act 1996. All of these acts by way of certain provisions provide for the rights and entitlements of young and old individuals with mental ailments (Mind.Org, 2010, p 1). Progressive legislation in areas of mental health has been accompanied by changes in social care policy for people with such ailments (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7). The beginning of social work in the area of mental health commenced with the engagement of a social worker by the Tavistock Clinic in 1920 (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7). Whilst social work in the area of mental health was subdued until the 1950s, it subsequently assumed larger dimensions and led to the realisation of the utility of non medical social interventions for treatment of medical health issues (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7). The publication of the Beverage Report in 1942 was instrumental in altering government policy and shifting the treatment of people with mental disorders from hospitals to the community (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7). The 1950s saw the establishment of day hospitals, greater flexibility in provisioning of psychiatric services and reduction in hospital beds (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7). The introduction of advanced drugs, the establishment of therapeutic bodies and development of greater outpatient services led to the decrease of numbers of psychiatric inpatients from 1955 (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7). Much of such decrease was prompted by the introduction of social rehabilitation and resettlement methods, introduction of anti psychotic medication and availability of welfare benefits (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7).Intensive debate and discussion in the media and among the community on the need to improve the conditions of people with mental health issues led to the introduction of specific programmes like the Care Programme Approach (CPA) in 1991 and other government initiatives (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). The guidance on Modernising Mental Health Services stressed upon the need for providing ca re at all times of the day and night and access to a comprehensive array of services (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13).The introduction of the National Service Framework for Mental Health in 1999 elaborated the national standards for mental health, their objectives, how they were to be developed and delivered and the methods for measuring performance in different parts of the country (Sheppard, 2002, p 779 to 797).Social workers are now playing important roles in the treatment of people with mental health disorders and their greater inclusion in the community (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7. Social work theory and practice has always espoused the use of the social model for dealing with people with mental health problems and have contributed to the development of a range of approaches that are holistic, empowering and community based in approach (Brand et al, 2008, p 3 to 7.Apart from being responsible for the introduction of numerous new person centred and community oriented approaches dea ling with mental health issues, mental health legislation, by way of The Mental Health Acts of 1983 and 2007 empowered appropriately trained social workers with a range of powers for assessment and intervention of people with mental health disorders (Ray et al, 2008, p 2 to 13). Application of Disability Knowledge in Practice Setting I am currently placed for my social work practice in a residential unit for people with mental health problems, who are furthermore homeless, more than 16 years of age, and fall under the purview of the Care Programme Approach (CPA). The CPA, which was introduced in 1991 for people with mental illnesses, requires health authorities, along with social service departments, to make specific arrangements for the care and medical treatment of people in the community with mental ailments (Care Programmeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, 2010, p 1). The CPA requires that all individuals who receive treatment, care and support from mental health services should receive high quality care, which should furthermore be based upon individual assessment of their choices and needs. The needs of service users and their carers should essentially be central to delivery of services (Care Programmeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, 2010, p 1). Mentally ill and homeless people are liable to pose special challenges to health and social care workers. The majority of those who suffer major mental illness live in impoverished circumstances somewhere along the continuum of poverty. Homelessness, however defined, is the extreme and most marginalised end of this continuum, and it is here that we find disproportionate numbers of the mentally ill. (Timms, 1996, P 159) It is very possible that the levels of cooperation and motivation of the mentally ill, who are also homeless, could be lesser than that of other patients (Net Industries, 2010, p 1). Whilst their limited resources often result in difficulties in their obtaining transportation to treatment centres, such people often forget to keep appointments or take their medications. Frequently unkempt in dress and appearance, their engagement in drug abuse can render them unresponsive and unruly (Net Industries, 2010, p 1). My practice setting provides specialised and supported residences for people with severe and long lasting mental health problems. Each resident has his or her own bedroom and is required to share the use of kitchens and bathrooms. Some of the residents have histories of multiple admissions in hospitals, combined with lack of compliance with medication and disengagement with services. Some of them also have histories of alcohol and substance abuse. Our organisation provides residents with a helpful and supportive environment for the carrying out of comprehensive assessment of needs (Timms, 1996, p 158 to 165). Assessments and care plans of our residents need to consider a range of requirements. These include assessing the requirements of parents with regard to physical health, housing, vocation and employment, dual diagnosis, history of abuse and violence, carers and medication (Timms, 1996, p 158 to 165). Assessment and care plans for such users need to essentially address risk management and plan for crises and contingencies (Timms, 1996, p 158 to 165). I, along with the other staff of the residential unit, work with mental health services for carrying out of detailed need assessments and for helping residents in development of independent living skills. My academic training and my knowledge of legislation and policy, whilst substantial, has not really provided me with the wherewithal to meet the practical challenges of my current position. It is still not widely recognised that social and economic disadvantages can lead to mental health problems (Timms, 1996, p 158 to 165). It is clear from my interaction with the residents that many of them come from disturbed and abused backgrounds and feel insecure about the social exclusion and stigma attached with mental ailments. They often have a multiplicity of needs that includes dual diagnosis as well as physical and mental health issues. I have to constantly refresh my knowledge of anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory theory and ensure that personalised, cultural and socialised biases do not affect my responses towards the inmates of the residential unit and that I am able to help them with their social service needs. My work includes involvement and help in assessments, assisting residents in finding educational agencies that can help them in improving their skills and earning ability, arranging for medical appointments and counselling sessions in line with their intervention requirements, making them aware of their various social services benefits and entitlements, and helping them to access such benefits. I am aware of the need to adopt a person-centred approach, and take care to ascertain the needs of service users as also their opinions on what they feel is best for them before I make suggestions. I try to adopt a uniformly cheerful and cooperative approach that is based upon respect and helpfulness in my routine interaction with them and strive to ensure that my responses are free of condescension and patronage. I find that some members of the health and social care professions, despite such significant progress in legislation and policy, approach the mental health and other problems of our residents in traditional and bureaucratic ways, (much in the manner of Dominellis portrayal of the current state of social services), and appear to be constrained by resources as well as entrenched attitudes (Dominelli, 2004, p 18 to 95). I am doing my best to ensure that the opinions of the residents are taken into account in the satisfaction of their needs, that they are helped to overcome their mental health issues, and are made more self sufficient to look after their needs. Conclusion Significant changes have occurred in the last 40 years in the ways in which disabled people are perceived in society. Whilst many of these changes are outcomes of legislative and policy action by UK governments, the growing awareness of (a) the relevance of the social model, and (b) the fundamental flaws of the medical model, in dealing with disabled people has driven both legislative and policy changes. Social workers, with their commitment towards bringing about of social inclusion of excluded and disadvantaged segments of society, their specialised education and training, and the resources and authority at their disposal, are particularly well placed to bring about attitudinal changes among the members of health and social services, as well as among members of the community. My practice experience has convinced me that much more will have to be done in the application of legislative provisions and social policy at the ground level, especially so by the people responsible for delivery of social and health care, before the disabled can truly be integrated into mainstream society.

Kochs Postulates :: essays research papers

Koch’s Postulates   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduction Koch created four guidelines to determine the causal agents of disease in humans, animals, and plants. Koch proved that a disease-causing agent could be transferred from one organism to another and create the same illness. Isolation of pure cultures and the introduction of the disease-causing agent to a healthy organism will transmit the disease and infect the inoculated organism. Koch’s four guidelines by which one must follow to transmit a disease from an infected organism to a healthy one are as followed: 1. The specific organism should be shown to be present in all cases of animals suffering from a specific disease but should not be found in healthy animals. 2. The specific microorganism should be isolated from the diseased animal and grown in pure culture on artificial laboratory media. 3. This freshly isolated microorganism, when inoculated into a healthy laboratory animal, should cause the same disease seen in the original animal. 4. The microorganism should be reisolated in pure culture from the experimental infection. In this exercise, Penicillium was utilized, a common, safe, mold. Certain species of Penicillium will spoil fruits, vegetables, grains, and grasses. Other species will ripen various chesses. Still, other species are used in the production of antibiotics. The species of Penicillium, italicum is provided for the lab because of its pronounced hyphae. Penicillium italicum, along with Penicillium digitatum attack citrus fruits post-harvest. In this experiment, the effect of Penicillium italicum on two types of citrus fruits and one non-citrus fruits were tested.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Materials & Methods 1. Pick several appropriate fruits. 2. Gently was fruit in cool, soapy water, using a scrub brush on the citrus fruits, then rinse thoroughly with cool running tap water. 3. Place citrus in a beaker and cover with a 10% bleach solution. Let soak for 10 minutes. 4. Rinse thoroughly with cool running tap water for 10 minutes. 5. Flame sterilize a teasing needle, cool, then pierce skin of disinfected fruit. 6. Unscrew cap on Penicilium italicum culture tube with one hand and flame the mouth of the tube. 7. Using the first three fingers of your writing hand, obtain a sterile applicator stick and remove a small sample of the fungus and smear over the puncture wound of the fruit. 8. Flame tube and recap. Discard swabs appropriately. 9. Obtain a second sample with a sterile applicator stick and smear over an unpunctured section of the fruit. 10. Flame tube and recap. Discard swabs appropriately. 11. Maintain a control for the experiment.

Elderly Sexual Activity And Health Health And Social Care Essay

As Lindau et Al. ( 2003 ) point out, gender involves the forming of a partnership and pertains to the behaviours, attitudes, map and activity of sexually active persons. Sexual activity has been associated with wellness ( Addis, Van Den Eeden and Wassel-Fyr, 2006 ; Laumann, Nicolosi and Glasser, 2005 ) , and complaint and disease might significantly impair sexual wellness ( Schover, 2000 ) . Aged people are receivers of a broad array of devices and medicines which aim at handling jobs of a sexual nature. While the demand for services and medicine pertaining to sexual wellness is increasing, however non much is known about the sexual behaviour of grownups over 65 old ages of age. In the developed states, the chronological age of 65 old ages old is mostly accepted as a cut-off point for categorization of a individual as ‘older ‘ or ‘elderly ‘ . While common definitions of the 3rd age such as this are so practically utilised, there exists no general consensus as to the point in clip when one really becomes old. Normally, the clip in life when one becomes eligible for a pension is adopted as declarative mood of old age. The United Nations do non utilize a standardised standard, but however agrees to 60+ old ages as mentioning to the aged ( WHO, 2010 ) . A definition of ripening is provided by Gorman ( 2000 ) : ripening is a extremely preset biological procedure which eludes human control. At the same clip, ageing is defined in a constructivist universe, where different societies assign different significances to old age. Chronological age is seen as most of import in developed states. The age between 60 and 65 is taken to mean the oncoming of old age. By contrast, in many developing states, age by old ages bears little relationship to the definition of old age. In such states, the significance of old age may depend alternatively on the functions that are been assigned to older people, or even on the loss of previously-held functions, which may come as a consequence of natural physical diminution. In amount, while the developed universe defines old age in a mode extremely chronological, the same is frequently non true for developing states, where people start to be perceived as elderly when their active function engagement is no long er possible ( Gorman, 2000 ) . Harmonizing to a definition by the World Health Organization ( 2001 ) , gender is â€Å" a natural portion of human development through every stage of life and includes physical, psychological, and societal constituents † ( p. 13 ) . Another definition of gender provided by Rheaume and Mitty ( 2008 ) states that gender is a â€Å" nucleus dimension of life that incorporates impressions, beliefs, facts, phantasies, rites, attitudes, values, and rights with respect to gender individuality and function, sexual Acts of the Apostless and orientation, and facets of pleasance, familiarity, and reproduction † and involves biological, psychological, societal, economic, spiritual, religious and cultural constituents ( p. 342 ) . Health is defined as â€Å" a province of complete physical, mental and societal wellbeing and non simply the absence of disease or frailty † ( WHO, 2001, p. 8 ) . In bend, sexual wellness â€Å" implies a positive attack to human gender and is hence an indispensable constituent of generative wellness. It includes the integrating of bodily, emotional, rational, and societal facets of an person in ways which positively enrich and enhance personality, communicating, love and human relationships † ( p. 13 ) . Sexual wellness, non unlike physical wellness, is viewed as a province of wellbeing where there is an outlook of enjoyable experiences without the invasion of negative feelings such as shame, fright, force per unit area or force. In maintaining with this definition, Calamidas ( 1997 ) suggests that place or assisted-living nurses can play a important function in the quality of aged people ‘s life through assisting them attain and continue a positive mentality to ward the look of their single gender. Historically, a big proportion of today ‘s aged people grew up and lived during a clip when societal norms were both conservative and gender-biased. Broadly talking, sexual intercourse was considered as a enjoyable experience chiefly for the work forces while adult females were thereby expected to sexually fulfill their hubbies and to do babes ( Hajjar and Kamel, 2003 ) . Peoples that today are over 70 old ages old may hold really ‘missed ‘ the sexual revolution of the sixtiess in the context and societal conditions under which it took topographic point, since they were already married and engrossed in their work and household life. This interesting analysis by Hajjar and Kamel ( 2003 ) returns to reason that the challenges to familiarity and gender faced by that age group may be partially due to the acceptance of a instead conservative set of values and beliefs about gender, a limited handiness and entree to knowledge on gender, and a deficiency of experiencing com fy with their gender. Rheaume and Mitty ( 2008 ) suggest that nowadays the traditional stereotypes sing ripening, familiarity and gender are being reexamined ; that is, the point of position is promoted that a desire for familiarity and for sexual contact does non hold to discontinue at any point during the life-time. Knowledge on the sexual activity of the aged people nevertheless is far from complete, particularly within a cross-cultural context every bit good as with mention to educational and fiscal position. In this visible radiation, the generalizability of research findings in this country is instead hindered. Oftentimes, this means that wellness professionals may be left â€Å" slightly in the dark † refering the wants and demands of older grownups as to their gender ( Rheaume and Mitty, 2008, p. 342 ) .Sex of the AgedThe National Social Life, Health and Aging Project ( NSHAP ) has taken up the undertaking of garnering informations on the sexual activity, behaviours and jobs of aged people ( Lindau et al. , 2007 ) . The findings of the national American sample of NSHAP show that while sexual activity tends to diminish with age, most older grownups continue to bask intimate marital or other relationships, every bit good as see their gender an of import facet of life. The bulk of persons aged 57 to 85 old ages old, and about one in three of persons aged between 75 85 old ages old were active sexually. Even in their 80s or 90s, the aged may pattern sex and/or onanism ( Lindau et al. , 2007 ) . There is grounds to propose that some work forces and adult females retain their sexual desire and partnership during the whole of their life ( Addis et al. , 2006 ; AARP, 1999 ; Nicolosi, Laumann and Glasser, 2004 ; Bacon et al. , 2003 ) . Some of these surveies nevertheless have relied on comparatively little sample sizes, and have utilized non-random sampling methods. Taking into consideration the above unfavorable judgments, Lindau et Al. ‘s ( 2007 ) survey examined the happening of sexual activity in sexually active participants and did non happen significantly lessening with old age. At the same clip, the degrees of reported sexual activity in respondents between 60 and 74 old ages old were comparable to the degrees reported by grownups from 18 to 59 old ages old, in a broad US study ( Laumann et al. , 1994 ) . Adults aged 65 old ages and over can retain an active and fulfilling sexual life throughout their old ages ( WHO, 2002 ) . Frequent sexual activity is normally reported after in-between age ( Janus and Janus, 2003 ) . In the study of the American Association of Retired Persons ( AARP, 1999 ) including 1384 aged persons, although sexual activity was reported as being enjoyable, no overarching understanding was reached as to the importance of sex toward keeping a good relationship. The research by AARP ( 1999 ) besides found that old grownups who have spouses tend to experience that a carry throughing sexual relationship is of import, as opposed to old grownups with no spouses. Men older than 75 were more likely to hold a partner or spouse and appeared to keep more favourable attitudes or more involvement towards sex than did adult females of the same age. Work force, whether they had a spouse or non, reported a higher frequence of ideas, feelings and phantasies related to sex than by and large did adult females. Steinke et Al. ‘s ( 2008 ) research with healthy aged people reported that the lesser wellness limitations of the aged helped them to retain their sexual activity throughout the class of their lives. Womans in their 3rd age normally demonstrate a larger decline of sexual activity with clip than make same-aged work forces ( Lindau et al. , 2007 ) . Harmonizing to the consequences of a transnational study of individuals 40 to 80 old ages of age ( Laumann, Paik and Glasser, 2006 ) , adult females tend to believe of sex as a less of import aspect of life than make work forces, and they besides tend to describe more absence of pleasance from it. The finding of the kineticss that are involved in sexual satisfaction are of peculiar importance here ( Carpenter, Nathanson and Kim, 2009 ) . Henderson-King and Veroff ( 1994 ) and Sprecher ( 2002 ) have found that sexual satisfaction enhances the person ‘s wellbeing, while it promotes the stableness of a matrimony and of other personal relationships. A better cognition of the factors that promote and lessen sexual satisfaction may assist in the development of better-suited clinical and policy intercessions against sexual jobs ( Bancroft, 2002 ) . As populations age, a sound apprehension of sexual activity in aged people is going more and more relevant ; people now enjoy longer and healthier lives, attitudes toward gender are being transformed and the importance of a fulfilling sexual life toward the attainment of personal felicity is being recognized ( Seidman, 1991 ; Calasanti & A ; Slevin, 2001 ) .Quality of lifeA figure of writers have suggested that physicians and policy- makers are going more and more aware of the importance of human gender for wellness and for good quality of life across the life span ( Lindau et al. , 2007 ; Satcher, 2001 ; WHO, 2002 ) . In his description of the cross-cultural survey of the World Health Organization, ‘Quality of Life/Older Adults ‘ ( including such subjects as liberty, activity, functionality, familiarity, relationships, socialisation, decease, and deceasing, Robinson ( 2007 ) states that gender, wellness position and personal relationships were all significantly related to quality of life. Many surveies have found that sexual activity bears a important relationship to length of service and positive wellness results ( Palmore, 1982 ; Davey Smith, Frankel and Yarnell, 1997 ; Onder et al. , 2003 ) .Sexual jobsSince the beginning of the twenty-first century new and considerable attending has been paid to the gender of the aged as a consequence of the creative activity of drugs that treat erectile disfunc tion. Male erectile disfunction, if treated efficaciously, can protract the active sex life of the aged of both genders throughout life ( Lindau, 2010 ) . As Cambois, Robine and Hayward ( 2001 ) point out, in many states sexual jobs comprise a major issue for aged people ; in the United States, about one in two 57 to 85 twelvemonth olds who are sexually active study that they have at least one sexual quandary, and one in three reference at least two such afflictions. Consequently, the bulk of the aged people in Lindau et Al. ‘s ( 2007 ) survey did describe teasing jobs of a sexual nature, and about one in four sexually active aged participants of both genders refrained from sexual intercourse as a consequence of a sexual job topic to curative intercession. During the passage to old age, alterations in physiology can impair the sexual reactivity of aged adult females and work forces, while they may impact, either negatively or positively, their sexual map ( Bachmann and Leiblum, 2004 ; Rosen et al. , 2005 ) . Different facets of gender had been found to hold a negative correlativity with hapless wellness and age ( Laumann et al. , 2005 ; Schover, 2000 ; Laumann, Paik and Rosen, 1999 ; Camacho and Reyes-Ortiz, 2005 ) . Isselbacher et Al. ( 1994 ) and Rosen et Al. ( 2005 ) province that jobs of a sexual nature may move as precursors or as epiphenomena to important infections or diseases such as diabetes or malignant neoplastic disease. Sexual jobs that go unnoticed and/or untreated may take to or co-occur with depression and societal backdown ( Nicolosi et al. , 2004 ; Morley and Tariq, 2003, Araujo et al. , 1998 ) . Medicine prescribed to the aged may hold an inauspicious consequence on sexual life ( Finger, Lund and Slagle, 1997 ) ; eve n medicine which treats sexual jobs may hold inauspicious wellness effects ( Lindau et al. , 2006 ; Gott, Hinchliff and Galena, 2004 ) . Steinke et Al. ( 2008 ) besides found that aged participants who were non active sexually showed a deterioration of sexual self-concept, self-efficacy, and satisfaction. In Konstam, Moser and De Jong ‘s ( 2005 ) research, a heightened self-efficacy was demonstrated to better on both sexual map and emotional operation, non excepting depression.Health and genderLindau et Al. ‘s ( 2007 ) survey found sexual activity to be positively related to the physical wellness of the aged, peculiarly in aged work forces. In general, healthy persons of all ages were more likely to prosecute in matrimonial or other intimate relationships and to be more sexually active. Furthermore, physical wellness was found to be related to different aspects of sexual map, every bit good as sexual jobs, irrespective of age ; similar findings have been reported by other research workers ( Laumann et al. , 1999 ; Bacon et al. , 2003 ) . It is advisable so that, when specific conditions apply, aged people who have wellness jobs or who are to have intervention which may act upon their sexual operation may necessitate to be evaluated based on their wellness position alternatively of their age ( Laumann et al. , 2005 ) . In a representative national analysis, Lindau ( 2010 ) assessed the relationship between gender, as measured per sexual activity and quality of sex life, and planetary self-reported physical wellness in mature and aged grownups. Lindau ( 2010 ) found that particularly for older adult females, self-rated wellness was closely related to holding a spouse. Overall, participants who were of really good or first-class physical wellness were approximately 1.7 times more likely to demo an involvement in sex than did participants of less than good wellness. As Lindau ( 2010 ) puts it, when compared to adult females, work forces tend to pass significantly more of their life being sexually active but, at the same clip, miss out on significantly more old ages of sexual activity as a effect of less than good wellness. This strong relationship between work forces ‘s wellness and expected continuance of a sexually active life may be partially attributable to chronic diseases but besides to intervention received for erectile disfunction ( Westlake et al. , 1999 ; Solomon, Man and Jackson, 2003 ; Burke et al. , 2007 ) . The United Nations ( 2007 ) have proposed that in the developed and developing states, a projection of people ‘s sexual activity as they become older can be utile in foretelling wellness demands and resources, sexual function-related services, the recovery from sexual disfunction due to illness, every bit good as the intervention for normally happening wellness conditions in the 3rd age. At the same clip, the want to protract the continuance of their sexual life can modify older people ‘s of import wellness behaviours ; mature grownups may for illustration quit smoke or take their medicine more earnestly if they expect that their action will advance a drawn-out and carry throughing sexual life ( United Nations, 2007 ) .I’I?I?I »I?I?I?I?I ±I† I?I ±Addis IB, Van Den Eeden SK, Wassel-Fyr CL, et Al. Sexual activity and map in middle-aged and older adult females. Obstet Gynecol 2006 ; 107:755-64. American Association of Retired Persons. Modern adulthood. Sexuality survey. Washington DC: AARP ; 1999. Araujo AB, Durante R, Feldman HA, Goldstein I, McKinlay JB. The relationship between depressive symptoms and male erectile disfunction: cross-sectional consequences from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. Psychosom Med 1998 ; 60:458-65. Araujo AB, Mohr BA, McKinlay JB. Changes in sexual map in middle-aged and older work forces: longitudinal informations from the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004 ; 52:1502-9. Bachmann GA, Leiblum SR. The impact of endocrines on menopausal gender: a literature reappraisal. Menopause 2004 ; 11:120-30. Bacon CG, Mittleman MA, Kawachi I, Giovannucci E, Glassser DB, Rimm EB. Sexual map in work forces older than 50 old ages of age: consequences from the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. Ann Intern Med 2003 ; 139:161-8. Bancroft, J. ( 2002 ) . The medicalization of female sexual disfunction: The demand for cautiousness. Archivess of Sexual Behavior, 31, 451-455. Burke JP, Jacobson DJ, McGree ME, Nehra A, Roberts RO, Girman CJ, et Al. Diabetess and sexual disfunction: consequences from the Olmsted County survey of urinary symptoms and wellness position among work forces. J Urol 2007 ; 177:1438-42. Calamidas EG. Promoting wellness gender among older grownups: educational challenges for wellness professionals. J Sex Educ Ther 1997 ; 22:45-9. Calasanti, T. M. , & A ; Slevin, K. F. ( 2001 ) . Gender, societal inequalities, and aging. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. Camacho ME, Reyes-Ortiz CA. Sexual disfunction in the aged: age or disease? Int J Impot Res 2005 ; 17: Suppl 1: S52-S56. Cambois E, Robine JM, Hayward MD. Social inequalities in disability-free life anticipation in the Gallic male population, 1980-1991. Demography 2001 ; 38:513-24. Davey Smith G, Frankel S, Yarnell J. Sexual activity and decease: are they related? Findingss from the Caerphilly Cohort Study. BMJ 1997 ; 315:1641-4. Finger WW, Lund M, Slagle MA. Medicines that may lend to sexual upsets: a usher to appraisal and intervention in household pattern. J Fam Pract 1997 ; 44:33-43. Gorman M. Development and the rights of older people. In: Randel J, et al. , explosive detection systems. The ripening and development study: poorness, independency and the universe ‘s older people. London, Earthscan Publications Ltd.,1999:3-21. Gott M, Hinchliff S, Galena E. General practician attitudes to discoursing sexual wellness issues with older people. Soc Sci Med 2004 ; 58:2093-103. Hajjar RR, Kamel HK. Sex in the nursing place, portion 1: attitudes and barriers to sexual look. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2003 ; 4:152-6. Henderson-King, D. H. , & A ; Veroff, J. ( 1994 ) . Sexual satisfaction and matrimonial wellbeing in the first old ages of matrimony. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 509-534. Isselbacher KJ, Martin JB, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, Wilson JD, Kasper DL, eds. Harrison ‘s rules of internal medical specialty. 13th erectile dysfunction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994:262. Janus SC, Janus CL. The Janus study on sexual behaviour. 1993. Cited in M. Wallace. Sexuality and aging in longterm attention. Ann Long-Term Care 2003 ; 11:53-9. Konstam V, Moser D, De Jong M. Depression and anxiousness in bosom failure. J Card Fail 2005 ; 11:455-63. Laumann EO, Gagnon JH, Michael RT, Michaels S. The societal organisation of gender: sexual patterns in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994:88. Laumann EO, Nicolosi A, Glasser DB, et Al. Sexual jobs among adult females and work forces aged 40-80 Y: prevalence and correlatives identified in the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Int J Impot Res 2005 ; 17:39-57. Laumann EO, Paik A, Glasser DB, et Al. A cross-national survey of subjective sexual wellbeing among older adult females and work forces: findings from the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Arch Sex Behav 2006 ; 35:145-61. Laumann EO, Paik A, Rosen RC. Sexual disfunction in the United States: prevalence and forecasters. JAMA 1999 ; 281: 537-44. Carpenter LM, Nathanson I-CA, Kim YJ. Physical Women, Emotional Work force: Gender and Sexual Satisfaction in Midlife. Arch Sex Behav ( 2009 ) 38:87-107. Lindau, S.T. ( 2010 ) . Sexual activity, wellness, and old ages of sexually active life gained due to good wellness: grounds from two US population-based cross sectional studies of ageing. BMJ, 340, 810 Lindau ST, Laumann EO, Levinson W, Waite LJ. Synthesis of scientific subjects in chase of wellness: the Interactive Biopsychosocial Model. Perspect Biol Med 2003 ; 46: Suppl 3: S74-S86. Lindau ST, Leitsch SA, Lundberg KL, Jerome J. Older adult females ‘s attitudes, behaviour, and communicating about sex and HIV: a community-based survey. J Womens Health ( Larchmt ) 2006 ; 15:747-53. Lindau ST, Schumm L, Laumann E, Levinson W, O'Muircheartaigh C, Waite L. A survey of gender and wellness among older grownups in the United States. N Engl J Med 2007 ; 357:762-74. Morley JE, Tariq SH. Sexual disfunction in older individuals. In: Hazzard WR, Blass JP, Halter JB, Ouslander JG, Tinetti ME, eds. Principles of geriatric medical specialty and geriatrics. 5th erectile dysfunction. New York: McGraw- Hill, 2003:1311-23. Nicolosi A, Laumann EO, Glasser DB, et Al. Sexual behaviour and sexual disfunctions after age 40: the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Urology 2004 ; 64:991-7. Nicolosi A, Moreira ED Jr, Villa M, Glasser DB. A population survey of the association between sexual map, sexual satisfaction and depressive symptoms in work forces. J Affect Disord 2004 ; 82:235-43. Onder G, Penninx B, Guralnik JM, Jones H, Fried LP, Pahor M, et Al. Sexual satisfaction and hazard of disablement in older adult females. J Clin Psychiatry 2003 ; 64:1177-82. Palmore EB. Forecasters of the length of service difference: a 25-year followup. Gerontologist 1982 ; 22:513-8. Rheaume, C. , and Mitty, E. ( 2008 ) . Sex and familiarity in older grownups. Geriatric Nursing, 29, 342-349. Robinson JG, Mohlzan AE. Sexuality and quality of life. J Gerontol Nurs 2007 ; 33:19-27. Rosen RC, Wing R, Schneider S, Gendrano N. Epidemiology of erectile disfunction: the function of medical comorbidities and lifestyle factors. Urol Clin North Am 2005 ; 32:403-17. Satcher D. The sawbones general ‘s call to action to advance sexual wellness and responsible sexual behavior. US Department of Health and Human Services, 2001. Schover LR. Sexual jobs in chronic unwellness. In: Leiblum SR, Rosen RC, eds. Principles and pattern of sex therapy. New York: Guilford, 2000:398-422. Seidman, S. ( 1991 ) . Romantic yearnings: Love in America, 1830-1980. New York: Routledge. Solomon H, Man JW, Jackson G. Erectile disfunction and the cardiovascular patient: endothelial disfunction is the common denominator. Heart 2003 ; 89:251-3. Sprecher, S. ( 2002 ) . Sexual satisfaction in prenuptial relationships: Associations with satisfaction, love, committedness, and stableness. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 190-197. Steinke, E.E. , Wright, D.W. , Chung, M.L. , and Moser, D.K. ( 2008 ) . Sexual self-concept, anxiousness, and self-efficacy predict sexual activity in bosom failure and healthy seniors. Heart & A ; Lung, 37, 323-333. United Nations. World population ageing 2007. UN, 2007. Westlake C, Dracup K, Walden JA, Fonarow G. Sexuality of patients with advanced bosom failure and their partners or spouses. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999 ; 18:1133-8. World Health Organization ( 2001 ) . Definitions and indexs in household planning, maternal & A ; child wellness and generative wellness used in the WHO regional office for Europe. Reproductive, Maternal and Child Health European Regional Office. Revised March 1999 & A ; January 2001. Accessed on 25 April 2010 at: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.euro.who.int/document/e68459.pdf World Health Organization. Specifying sexual wellness: study of a proficient audience on sexual wellness, 28-31 January 2002. Geneva, 2002. www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/gender_rights/defining_sexual_health/en/index.html. 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Shakespeares use of minor characters in Macbeth and Othello Essay Example

Shakespeares use of minor characters in Macbeth and Othello Essay Example Shakespeares use of minor characters in Macbeth and Othello Paper Shakespeares use of minor characters in Macbeth and Othello Paper Essay Topic: Othello Shakespeare tends to use his minor characters to allow a brief interlude of comic relief in his tragedies. However, these minor characters are also pivotal characters through which Shakespeare can convey much deeper and darker meanings to the audience whilst using black humour. The minor characters of the Porter in Macbeth and the Clown in Othello are both seen as comic characters whose main purpose would initially be expected as bringing comedy to the stage, yet the scenes in which they are involved and the characters themselves are much more significant than may first appear. Shakespeare is using these minor characters to contrast the element of dark comedy with tragedy enabling the two to become indistinguishable, allowing a sense of movement between the comedy, which creates the feeling of relief, therefore heightening the dramatic tension and the tragedy. The Porter in Macbeth enters the stage immediately following the murder of King Duncan. The Porters use of prose as opposed to verse and his frequent crude jokes and poor style of language, coupled with his short appearance and lack of stage space, resulted in him generally being ignored by much earlier critics. However there is layered meanings to this scene, enabling it to be interpreted in a number of ways, for technicality purposes or to further establish the character of Macbeth, and without it, the themes of the play do not hold as much significance. Although the scene is a mere 40 lines long, it is a dividing point of Macbeth, and one of the most debatable scenes in the entire play. The Porter Scene occurs at the start of Act II, and is multi-functional serving both practical technicalities and hidden meanings in the more sinister elements of the play. Shakespeare includes these comic scenes in his plays for a variety of reasons, and they are much more purposeful than merely adding some humour and lightening the mood. The location of this scene adds to the peculiarity of it and defamiliarizes the situation to the audience making events feel out of time and in the wrong space, resulting in possibility for its many interpretations. The scene immediately follows Macbeths offstage killing of Duncan and therefore, in terms of technicalities, without this scene Macbeths dress cannot be shifted nor his hands washed (Capell, 13). This is a very practical reason for the inclusion of the Porter yet minor characters were often included to enable the major characters to fulfil something or to support the actions of the major characters. This also delays the audiences as well as the other characters discovering the murder of King Duncan and therefore enables Macbeth to change his clothes; not only hidden from the audience but also to disguise and prolong the fact that he has committed the murder. However, if these are the solo reasons for the scenes existence a character who causes delay need not to be a drunken porter, (Muir). Therefore there must be a deeper meaning for such a comical character in a drunken state, which despite performing a series of comical actions could be considered as anti-comic. The fact that Macbeths brutal slaying of Duncan immediately precedes his entrance locates the Porter as the true test of comedy that shall awaken thoughtful laughter. (Meredith, 994). Whilst providing comic relief, the scene is also as a transition period for the audience as the action moves from the intensity of the murders to the drama that follows, acting as a paradox to add to the tension not only on stage between the characters but also with the audience. The use of light humour in the porters soliloquy intensifies the suspense as opposed to merely creating humour and increases the effectiveness of the transition which would not have as much meaning if every minute of the play contained violence and intense drama. Although the Porter initially appears as a drunken fool who is nothing more than an idiot, Shakespeare is actually providing the audience with a much deeper understanding of the themes of the play through some of the Porters comments. One reading of the Porter is to take his comments literally and to read him as a porter of Hell Gate (II. i. 3), not just a porter of the gates of Inverness Castle. This then links to the meaning of Hell and whether it is the place he is referring to or Macbeths state of mind. If the purpose of the Porter is to represent the state of Macbeths mind at this vulnerable time, then the Porter can also be seen as taking on the role of Macbeths interrogator. (Chahidi) Macbeth is under a lot of pressu re from both Lady Macbeth and his own guilt and conscience after having killed King Duncan, therefore the Porters talk of hell and damnation are things that will be at the forefront of his mind. The fact that the Porter immediately converts to the role of a regular, drunken porter at Macduff and Lennoxs arrival, may be representative of the dual personality that Macbeth is going to require; the public Macbeth and the private, murderous Macbeth; who has given himself up to the devil due to the amount of evil within him. This representation of the Porter as Macbeths disorderly state of mind may be why he regards his job as a porter of hell-gate. The house has become a house of hell due to it being owned by Macbeth. The Porters drunken stupor, coupled with the fact that the conversation turns to talk of drink and sex upon the arrival of Macduff and Lennox, enables Shakespeare to contrast the Porter with the other characters, including Macbeth, and declaring him to as a character who is of a lower social class and an uneducated member of society. The intensity of Macbeths sins and crimes are also intensified by the Porter whose sins are merely innocent drinking and fornication as opposed to the cold, evil crimes within the castle. The Porters simple vices establish an ethical distance between ordinary humanity and Macbeth. (Harcourt) During his speech, the Porter mentions three professions, a farmer, a tailor, and possibly the most important, the equivocator. The choice of these professions is not a mere coincidence but a result of their importance to the dramatic situation and Macbeths character. The first, .. a farmer that hanged himself on thexpectation of plenty (II. iii. 7-8) parallels Macbeths earlier state of mind in Act 1 Scene VII. He struggles to cope with the amount of evil and the great sin he is committing because of his conscience, and as a result of which, he depends upon his drive and ambition to help him fulfil the evil deed, I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition which oerlaps and falls on thother (I. vii. 25-26). It is only his internal drives that lead Macbeth to his downfall; there are no real external necessities or factors causing Macbeth or the farmer to resort to such drastic actions. The inclusion of the tailor and his thieving may relate to the fact that Macbeth is stealing Duncans place on the throne and will be dressed in borrowed robes. (I. iii. 108) This image of clothes is used a number of times throughout the play and is also a recurring symbol in the Porters speech who refers to a French hose. (II. iii. 13) The most important of the professions mentioned by the Porter is evidently the equivocator, that could swear in both the scales against either scale, who committed treason enough for Gods sake, yet could not equivocate Heaven. II. iii. 8-9) These words are heavily laden with the element of sin and the treason of the equivocator paralleling the treason of Macbeth murdering the King. At the end of the play, Macbeth will have to pay for his crimes but unlike the equivocator who was able to equivocate Heaven, Macbeths punishment will be eternal. The Porters status as a minor character is justifiable due to his short presence in the play, yet his presence can also be seen as a continuance of the supernatural elements throughout the play. The clown disappears without a word: we might say that he vanishes, like the witches, when his many tasks are complete. (Brown) This interpretation of the Porter as a continuation or product of the witches is intensified in certain productions of the play as some directors have chosen to have the same actor play both the part of a witch as well as the Porter. Very often it is the actors own depiction of the Porter that determines his characteristics resulting in it being interpreted in many different ways. As Shakespeare does not specify how he wants the character to played it may be that this was his original intention. Paul Chahidi who played the role of the Porter as well as one of the witches believed that the Porters speech was included in order to give a voice to all of Macbeths thoughts and imaginings after the murder (Chahidi), which have ironically come about as a result of the witches prophecies, voiced by the same actor. Following an analysis of the character of the Porter and the scene in which he is located, it is evident that this minor character is very important as he is included at such a significant and pivotal point in the play. He serves a much greater purpose than merely making the audience laugh. The introduction of a character such as the porter enables Shakespeare to juxtapose moments of humour with moments of tragedy. Without these elements of humour, the language would not carry the same connotations or meaning, resulting in it being less effective. Macbeth is not the only play to have a minor character; whose presence is so brief that they do not even qualify for an individual name or title; playing such a momentous role and it is especially common in Shakespeares tragedies. These arguments of the purpose of minor characters are also supported by the role of the Clown in Othello who is equally more important and significant than first suggested. The function of the Clown in Shakespeares Othello can also be queried as although it is initially conveyed as a character who provides humour and some comic relief, the poor quality of the jokes and the fact that they result in very little humour, leaves the audience questioning Shakespeares intentions of including a character who initially appears insignificant and useless. The Clown works as a servant in Othellos household and therefore has a dual role as both entertainer and servant. He makes two appearances in the play, the first being in Act 3 Scene I and the second later in the same act, in Scene IV, as opposed to the Porter in Macbeth who only appears in the one scene. However, despite making two appearances the total amount of dialogue spoken by the Clown only equals the equivalent of approximately twelve lines. The Clowns first appearance establishes him in his servant role, defamiliarizing the audiences image and purpose of a clown. However, the way in which these servants duties are performed and his choice of language carrying comic connotations, helps to re-establish him as a clown and therefore a comical character in the play. The Clowns speech is not as straight forward as first appears as Shakespeare has employed the use of puns with almost every statement he makes. The Clowns opening line and introduction to the audience is whilst making a derogatory comment about the musician performance, Why masters have your instruments been in / Naples that they speak I th nose thus? (III. i. 4) This line is suggestive of the comical scene that lies ahead, which is enforced by the imminent need of some humour and comic relief at such an intense point of the play, following Cassio and Roderigos fight. Granville-Barker justified the inclusion of the Clown at this point as being : For relaxation before the tense main business of the tragedy begins we next have Cassio in the early morning bringing musicians to play beneath Othellos window (a pleasant custom, and here what delicate amends! ), to this being added the grosser, conventional japes of the Clown. Granville-Barker). Othellos distaste for the music and the fact that the Clowns entrance evolves around music, relates to Shakespeares conceptions of peace ad agreement in terms of music played or sung in tune, and of disagreement and conflict in terms of music out of tune. (Prager) Othello does not want to be soothed by the tune and therefore does not want any music, showing that he is evidently in a state of disarray. The Clown refers to the music as nasal, reminding the audience of the intensity of the conflict between the characters. The Clown is immediately established as being different to Shakespeares other comical characters. His dialogue is generally directed at other characters on stage without the need for him to soliloquize his speeches, and the puns and innuendos he makes are also aimed at the other characters who in turn respond to the Clown. The response of these on stage characters also helps the audience to further develop their understanding of them, and therefore the role of the clown may not solely be for comical purposes and to provide a sense of relief to the play, but also to further establish the main characters. This is established from the moment the Clown appears and he is left alone with Cassio who asks if Dost thou hear me, mine hones friend? (III. i. 21) and the Clown responds with, No, I hear not your honest friend. I hear you. (III. i. 22) This manipulation of honesty is a central theme in Othello and conveys the use of the Clown as a tool for establishing the other characters to the audience and intensifying the element of irony in the play. If Othello trusted his honest friends as opposed to the dishonest Iago the play would not have such a tragic outcome and the events that unfold would be quite different. Cassios response to the Clown further establishes Cassio himself as someone who does not like humour and is in fact a very serious person, contrasting entirely with the Clown. This serious aspect to Cassios character and his inability to partake in humour may contribute to his actions in later scenes. The Clowns later appearance in Act 3 Scene iv and his exchange with Desdemona, also contains dialogue laden with these puns, which relates to the earlier events, proceeding the speech and continues to emphasise the themes of honesty and lies. Despite the element of humour in this scene; reminding the audience that the main purpose of the Clown is to provide a moment of relief amidst all the tension; the Clowns choice of language and jokes also develops Desdemona as a sentimental, emotional character who is portrayed as nai ve and someone who readily believes what she is told and readily believes those she thinks she can trust. This results in Iago being able to manipulate her so easily. When asked of Cassios location, the Clown states that he dare not say he lies anywhere, (III. iv. and Desdemona takes his statement literally, replying, Why man? (III. iv. 3), again showing her naivety. Although the lying that the Clown is referring to is where Cassio is located, the context in which it is spoken and the earlier representation of the Clown, suggests to have a double meaning relating to telling a lie. The irony of this speech and fact that it is stated in the same sentence as stabbing Cassio, He is a soldier and for one to say a soldier lies, is stabbing. (III. iv. 7) is heightened by the later events in the play when Iago actually stabs Roderigo, a soldier, in Act 5. The way in which the Clown plays with the truth results in it being more believable and effective, enables the audience to understand Shakespeares intentions for what lies ahead and the subtle hints he provides about the events still to come. It is this black humour, which comes about as a result of Shakespeares education in Greek classics and literature that enables the incorporation of comedy or humour into the tragedies, Shakespeare loved Latin and Greek literature. What he had been taught at school he remembered, he improved his knowledge afterwards by reading translations. (Highet) This helps to maintain the attention of the audience and heightens the intensity of the dramatic moments. The use of these two minor characters is to provide elements of humour yet it also evident that the techniques employed by Shakespeare enable them to have a dual purpose. As is the fool in King Lear, who plays a larger role than the Clown and the Porter whilst still maintaining the position of minor character, the voices of these characters speak directly to the audience connecting the events of the play and reminding the audience of any subtle suggestions they may have missed or not understood. Whilst some critics view the insertion of these minor characters and comical elements as interrupting the actions, it can be argued that they in fact add to the tragedy and sinister moments. They are not there purely for comical reasons but to serve a purpose in terms of structure and theatrical necessity (Playnotes). It is through these minor characters that the brief moments of comic relief are seen. No matter how small or what the underlying meanings may be at these points of the plays they still provide a sense of humour and relieve the intensity of the drama.